Arabic

“Intifada” (إنتفاضة) is a term we often hear in slogans related to Palestinian resistance movements, the most famous and controversial being “globalize the intifada,” but what exactly is the meaning of intifada?

The word comes from the Arabic word “nafaDa” (نفض) which is a verb meaning “to shake the dust off something.” It could be used literally as “shaking [the dust] off the carpets” (نفض السجّاد) or figuratively, as “shaking off one’s laziness,” (نفض غُبار الكسل), or “being finished or rid of something” (سَئِم من المسألة، فقرّر نفض يدَيه منها; “He was fed up with the whole affair, so he decided to dust it from his hands.”) A similar sentiment is conveyed by the English expression, itself of ancient Hebrew origin, of “shaking the dust of something or someone from one’s feet.” As a related noun, “intifada” means “tremor, a shudder or a shiver.”

The First Palestinian Intifada: A Turning Point

It was in 1952 that the meaning of “intifada” took on its modern, political overtone of a “Middle East uprising,” when a series of protests shook the then-kingdom of Iraq in an attempt to force the king’s abdication in favor of a republic. It was then applied to Israeli-Palestinian conflict history when the first major Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation started, in 1987. Up until that point, there had been no conscious, organized resistance movement against the occupation. The First Palestinian Intifada was the result of Palestinian recognition — led largely by women and students — that they would have to take their future into their own hands and could no longer wait for the international community to intervene on their behalf. Activists at that time chose the word “intifada” because it implied resistance that was aggressive but nonviolent. Palestinians were shaking off the dust of the occupation.

Media Influence on Intifada Perception

In her book A Quiet Revolution: The First Palestinian Intifada and Nonviolent Resistance, historian and activist Mary Elizabeth King largely blames the media for shifting the meaning of “intifada” in the Western mind and possibly even contributing to the escalating violence, detailing how international TV crews would avoid coverage of peaceful protests but focused in on rock-throwers and then the increasingly militant actions taken in response to heavy-handed Israeli reprisals. By the time the First Intifada ended in 1993, “intifada” was no longer associated with non-violence; the ground was thus laid for the Second Intifada, which arose from the failure of the Oslo Accords and lasted from 2000 to 2005, involving indisputable terrorist activities like suicide bombings and rocket attacks. Both uprisings were characterized by a heavy loss of life on the Israeli side and roughly three times as many losses on the Palestinian side.

The Second Palestinian Intifada had a profound impact on Palestinian-Israeli relations, contributing to a shift in Israeli attitudes and more relevance for Hamas, with increased skepticism toward the peace process and the two-state agreement.

Modern Misapplications of “Intifada”

On December 5, 2023, the presidents of Harvard, MIT, and the University of Pennsylvania were called into a hearing of the U.S. Congress to discuss allegations of growing antisemitism on their campuses as a result of the War on Gaza. During that hearing, Rep. Elise Stefanik of New York equated chants of “intifada” with a call for genocide against Jews. While the rise of Hamas and its terrorism cannot be denied, the term “intifada” significantly predates it. By no means is intifada a call to genocide or indiscriminate violence against Jews or, for that matter, Israelis.

The discussion and subsequent uproar over the presidents’ responses underline the importance of an accurate understanding of this controversial term. Given the gravity of the current situation in Palestine, it’s time to shake off our biases and ensure that our discourse is guided by integrity in our communications, informed by a sound knowledge of history.

Photo by Idriss Belhamadia

ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Mikaela Bell is a freelance editor and content writer with a background in anthropology and linguistics. An American based in France, she is also fond of reading, cooking, studying languages, fibercrafts and Irish stepdance.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Alice Zanini is a copywriting intern at NaTakallam. She is currently pursuing her bachelor’s degree in linguistics and Middle Eastern studies. Her research focus is on sociopolitical and sociolinguistic issues in modern Turkey and the Persian-speaking world.

Despite being the holiday of a minority religion in the Middle East, Christmas (ˁeid almiilaad, عيد الميلاد) is officially recognized in five Arab countries — Syria, Sudan, Jordan, Lebanon and Iraq — and is celebrated to some extent throughout the region. Join us for a deeper dive into special Christmas traditions in three Arab countries.

Iraq (عراق)

In 2018, Christmas was declared a public holiday in Iraq, and that holiday was made permanent in 2023. That said, the country has had Christian presence for centuries — in fact, it is estimated that the Christian community in Iraq is among the oldest in the Christian world. Christians believe that Abraham was born in the ancient city of Ur, which was located in what it is now southern Iraq. Today, most Iraqi Christians are Catholic, including the Chaldean Rite, the Syrian Rite, the Latin Rite and the Armenian Rite. The other Christians belong to the Nestorian Church of the East, the Syrian Orthodox Church and the Armenian Church. These churches are scattered all over the cities of Iraq.

Over the course of its history, the Christian presence has been more or less tolerated by the country’s (mostly Muslim) rulers, but most sources agree that since 2003, after the US’s invasion of Iraq and the consequent rise of extremist groups such as ISIS, Christians, alongside other religious minorities, have faced threats and persecutions. Sources estimate that the current Christian population in Iraq consists of between 300,000 to 200,000 thousand people: an estimated 5% of the Iraqi population. This is a huge decline compared to the 1.5 million Christians who were living in Iraq according to a government survey done in 1987. Many of them have emigrated to other countries. So how is it possible that Christmas celebrations are so popular in Iraqi cities?

For the younger generations, it can be a political statement. The Christmas tree (shajarat ˁeid almiilaad, شجرة عيد الميلاد) is seen as a symbol for a world many Arabs don’t have access to and only see on TV and social media, so they try to incorporate it into their life by decorating their homes with Christmas motifs. In this case, Christmas is not seen as a religious festival, but is more of a secular, international cultural phenomenon. Others celebrate it to show solidarity with their Christian co-nationals and appreciation for the diversity that different religions bring to Iraqi society. Finally, some Muslims honor Christmas as the day the Prophet Isa (the Muslim Arabic name of Jesus) was born. And of course, the message of joy and new beginnings usually associated with Christmas and the New Year appeals to many people regardless of their religion. The reasons behind the nationwide appeal of the Christmas holiday are explored in more depth by Deutsche Welle.

The most common representation of Christmas in Iraq is the decorated Christmas tree, which can be seen in shopping malls, hotels and restaurants or in the main streets of big cities. The Christmas tree is more commonly known as the “New Year’s tree” there, and so it is not strictly associated with Christianity. Santa Claus (known in Arabic as بابا نوئل, Baba No’el) is also associated with the New Year (al-sina al-jadiid, السنة الجديدة) because he brings gifts like new clothes. Actual religious symbols such as the cross or Nativity representations are not seen as often in the streets, except in areas where a lot of Christians live.

On Christmas Day, friends and family visit each other and exchange wishes. The traditional meal on this occasion is harissa (هريسة), a soup with a thick consistency made of wheat and chicken meat. At the end of the meal, date-stuffed biscuits called kleicha (كليجة) are eaten. In front of the church, another bonfire is lit and the bishops say a mass while carrying a figure of the baby Jesus. He blesses one person with a touch. That person touches the next person, and so the touch passes around until all have felt the so-called “touch of peace.”

Lebanon (لبنان)

With around 30% percent of the population being Christian, Christmas is big in Lebanon. The 18 different Christian communities present in the country also bring a lot of diversity to their Christmas celebrations. A lot of these communities celebrate Christmas on December 25, but the Armenian community celebrates on January 6 instead.

People who are not Christian are also eager to celebrate, both to show appreciation and interest in their neighbors’ culture and also because many see Christmas as a joyful holiday where people can gather and spend time together. “When I lived in Lebanon, several Muslims told me that Christmas was their favorite holiday,” recalls NaTakallam staff member Mikaela Bell. “When I asked why, they said that most other holidays in Lebanon were celebrated only by one religious group, but that Christmas was for everyone.”

People also mark this day by planting wheat seeds in small containers. The seeds will sprout just in time for Christmas ready to be placed under the Christmas tree or beside nativity scenes. The wheat has a double meaning: it connects to the story of Saint Barbara, who escaped from her father, a pagan king, by running through a field of wheat which grew taller to cover her, and it also represents rebirth, directly referring to the birth of Christ.

Another really common decoration is the Christmas tree, which is seen both in the streets of the cities and also in private homes, even in Muslim families. The poinsettia flower (zaharat al-bonseita, زهرة البونسيتة) was originally imported from the West (it’s native to Mexico) but quickly became really popular in Lebanon as well and is sold in pots during the winter time. In Christian homes families also prepare and decorate a nativity scene. On Christmas Eve churches hold a midnight mass. Afterwards families gather together to eat. Gifts are given to children by their family members, although Baba Noel is also an appreciated Christmas icon.

Common foods that are eaten during this period are the French buche de Noel and the Lebanese meghli (مغلي) a rice pudding with spices and nuts, which is traditionally made to celebrate newborns in the family and during Christmas to celebrate Jesus’s birth. Want to try some? Franceline suggests this recipe for meghli, in English, from the Simply Lebanese blog.

Palestine (فلسطين)

Christmas is not an official holiday in the cradle of Christianity, but it is still widely celebrated by local Christian communities, Muslims, and foreign visitors alike, especially in Bethlehem (بيت لحم), where people come to visit the various places of worship dedicated to the different Christian communities. The oldest and biggest church in Palestine is the Orthodox church, which celebrates Christmas on January 7. Still, December 25 is the most popular day for celebrations. Nativity scenes (meghaarat al-miilaad, مغارة الميلاد, which literally means a “Christmas cave”) and Christmas trees are also common symbols for this celebration, but some believers recall the tradition of decorating cypress tree branches or hanging blessed olive tree branches in their homes.

Traditionally, Palestinian Christian families used to gather, eat homemade sweets alongside a cup of coffee and visit their friends and family. Another commonly eaten food during Christmas is maftoul (مفتول), a Palestinian couscous cooked in broth and eaten with meat, chickpeas and vegetables. Some families view Christmas as a celebration for children, and use this occasion to gift them clothes and toys.

In general, a lot of Palestinians today celebrate Christmas in a more humble and “private” way. Due to emigration and ongoing conflicts, the Christian population in the land of Jesus’s birth is declining. Most sources agree that there are around 50,000 Christians in the West Bank, Gaza and East Jerusalem. Around 2% of the West Bank’s population and less than 1% of Gaza’s population is Christian. They share common struggles with other non-Jewish communities, such as religious discrimination, attacks on holy sites and restrictions on religious practices. In 2023, the Church of Saint Porphyrius was attacked in an Israeli strike claiming to target a Hamas command center, killing at least 18 people, Muslims and Christians, who were sheltering in the building.

If you’d like to learn Palestinian, Lebanese, or Iraqi Arabic — or several other dialects including MSA — while directly supporting displaced people, NaTakallam’s Language Partners are waiting! Sign up for a free trial and discover the joys of language learning with a private tutor, on your own schedule. Choose from 1.) language sessions in your choice of dialect, available for all levels, 2.) our unique Integrated Arabic Curriculum, suitable for committed learners, or 3.) our short Arabic for Professionals courses, perfect for advanced students. All Language Partners come from displaced backgrounds or struggling host communities. Yalla!

Want to learn a few phrases while you’re waiting for your next class? How about some Arabic terms of endearment, a few ways to say goodbye, or the meaning of “inshallah.” Or read about the meaning of the Palestinian keffiyeh and its traditional embroidery.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Alice Zanini is a copywriting intern at NaTakallam. She is currently pursuing her bachelor’s degree in linguistics and Middle Eastern studies. Her research focus is on sociopolitical and sociolinguistic issues in modern Turkey and the Persian-speaking world.

ABOUT THE EDITOR: Mikaela Bell is a freelance editor and content writer with a background in anthropology and linguistics. An American based in France, she is also fond of reading, cooking, studying languages, fibercrafts and Irish stepdance.

With the ongoing war on Gaza, many people are eager to show their support for Palestine. One popular way to do so is by wearing the keffiyeh or kufiyyah (كوفية), a cotton or wool fishnet-patterned scarf. It can have different color variations but is usually a white background with black or red embroidered details. But what is the meaning of the keffiyeh? Its exact origins are unknown, but many Arab countries, such as Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Saudi Arabia, have their own preferred way to wear it. In the Palestinian context, however, it’s not just a fashion item — it’s an iconic symbol of Palestinian culture and identity.

In the 1960s the Palestinian فِدائيّين (feda’iyiin; guerrilla fighters) resumed using the keffiyeh as an emblem of national struggle and unity, while the Palestinian politician Yasser Arafat popularized it to a broader, global audience. Its symbolism became even more fundamental when Israeli authorities banned the Palestinian flag in 1967, and throughout the ’60s and ’70s left wing students and activists from all over the world started wearing it as a symbol of sympathy towards anti-imperialist and anti-war causes.

It was at this point that it became a fashionable garment. Mass manufacturers started producing and selling it to broader audiences, who were often unaware of its meaning and wore it for aesthetic purposes (which has led to accusations of cultural appropriation). For Palestinians, however, the cultural significance of the keffiyeh remains strong despite its commercialization.

The keffiyeh’s patterns are a classic example of Palestinian embroidery. The Arabic word for embroidery of any kind is تطريز (taTriiz), but in English the word “tatreez” has become synonymous with the unique style of embroidery indigenous to Palestine, traditionally done by women.

Some patterns and colors were originally only used in certain areas of Palestine (palm trees from Ramallah, or orange blossoms from Beit Dajan), whereas other designs were stitched everywhere in the country. After the 1920s, however, transportation improved and differences between regions started to decline. 

To learn more about Palestinian culture, consider learning Arabic with one of our Palestinian language partners! Here at NaTakallam, every language session contributes to the livelihoods of our skilled tutors from refugee/displaced backgrounds and their host communities. Book a session today, or start with a few key phrases: learn the meaning of inshallah, some common terms of endearment, or how to wish someone happy holidays.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Alice Zanini is a copywriting intern at NaTakallam. She is currently pursuing her bachelor’s degree in linguistics and Middle Eastern studies. Her research focus is on sociopolitical and sociolinguistic issues in modern Turkey and the Persian-speaking world.

ABOUT THE EDITOR: Mikaela Bell is a freelance editor and content writer with a background in anthropology and linguistics. An American based in France, she is also fond of reading, cooking, studying languages, fibercrafts and Irish stepdance.