Cultural Insights

“Intifada” (إنتفاضة) is a term we often hear in slogans related to Palestinian resistance movements, the most famous and controversial being “globalize the intifada,” but what exactly is the meaning of intifada?

The word comes from the Arabic word “nafaDa” (نفض) which is a verb meaning “to shake the dust off something.” It could be used literally as “shaking [the dust] off the carpets” (نفض السجّاد) or figuratively, as “shaking off one’s laziness,” (نفض غُبار الكسل), or “being finished or rid of something” (سَئِم من المسألة، فقرّر نفض يدَيه منها; “He was fed up with the whole affair, so he decided to dust it from his hands.”) A similar sentiment is conveyed by the English expression, itself of ancient Hebrew origin, of “shaking the dust of something or someone from one’s feet.” As a related noun, “intifada” means “tremor, a shudder or a shiver.”

The First Palestinian Intifada: A Turning Point

It was in 1952 that the meaning of “intifada” took on its modern, political overtone of a “Middle East uprising,” when a series of protests shook the then-kingdom of Iraq in an attempt to force the king’s abdication in favor of a republic. It was then applied to Israeli-Palestinian conflict history when the first major Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation started, in 1987. Up until that point, there had been no conscious, organized resistance movement against the occupation. The First Palestinian Intifada was the result of Palestinian recognition — led largely by women and students — that they would have to take their future into their own hands and could no longer wait for the international community to intervene on their behalf. Activists at that time chose the word “intifada” because it implied resistance that was aggressive but nonviolent. Palestinians were shaking off the dust of the occupation.

Media Influence on Intifada Perception

In her book A Quiet Revolution: The First Palestinian Intifada and Nonviolent Resistance, historian and activist Mary Elizabeth King largely blames the media for shifting the meaning of “intifada” in the Western mind and possibly even contributing to the escalating violence, detailing how international TV crews would avoid coverage of peaceful protests but focused in on rock-throwers and then the increasingly militant actions taken in response to heavy-handed Israeli reprisals. By the time the First Intifada ended in 1993, “intifada” was no longer associated with non-violence; the ground was thus laid for the Second Intifada, which arose from the failure of the Oslo Accords and lasted from 2000 to 2005, involving indisputable terrorist activities like suicide bombings and rocket attacks. Both uprisings were characterized by a heavy loss of life on the Israeli side and roughly three times as many losses on the Palestinian side.

The Second Palestinian Intifada had a profound impact on Palestinian-Israeli relations, contributing to a shift in Israeli attitudes and more relevance for Hamas, with increased skepticism toward the peace process and the two-state agreement.

Modern Misapplications of “Intifada”

On December 5, 2023, the presidents of Harvard, MIT, and the University of Pennsylvania were called into a hearing of the U.S. Congress to discuss allegations of growing antisemitism on their campuses as a result of the War on Gaza. During that hearing, Rep. Elise Stefanik of New York equated chants of “intifada” with a call for genocide against Jews. While the rise of Hamas and its terrorism cannot be denied, the term “intifada” significantly predates it. By no means is intifada a call to genocide or indiscriminate violence against Jews or, for that matter, Israelis.

The discussion and subsequent uproar over the presidents’ responses underline the importance of an accurate understanding of this controversial term. Given the gravity of the current situation in Palestine, it’s time to shake off our biases and ensure that our discourse is guided by integrity in our communications, informed by a sound knowledge of history.

Photo by Idriss Belhamadia

ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Mikaela Bell is a freelance editor and content writer with a background in anthropology and linguistics. An American based in France, she is also fond of reading, cooking, studying languages, fibercrafts and Irish stepdance.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Alice Zanini is a copywriting intern at NaTakallam. She is currently pursuing her bachelor’s degree in linguistics and Middle Eastern studies. Her research focus is on sociopolitical and sociolinguistic issues in modern Turkey and the Persian-speaking world.

Despite being the holiday of a minority religion in the Middle East, Christmas (ˁeid almiilaad, عيد الميلاد) is officially recognized in five Arab countries — Syria, Sudan, Jordan, Lebanon and Iraq — and is celebrated to some extent throughout the region. Join us for a deeper dive into special Christmas traditions in three Arab countries.

Iraq (عراق)

In 2018, Christmas was declared a public holiday in Iraq, and that holiday was made permanent in 2023. That said, the country has had Christian presence for centuries — in fact, it is estimated that the Christian community in Iraq is among the oldest in the Christian world. Christians believe that Abraham was born in the ancient city of Ur, which was located in what it is now southern Iraq. Today, most Iraqi Christians are Catholic, including the Chaldean Rite, the Syrian Rite, the Latin Rite and the Armenian Rite. The other Christians belong to the Nestorian Church of the East, the Syrian Orthodox Church and the Armenian Church. These churches are scattered all over the cities of Iraq.

Over the course of its history, the Christian presence has been more or less tolerated by the country’s (mostly Muslim) rulers, but most sources agree that since 2003, after the US’s invasion of Iraq and the consequent rise of extremist groups such as ISIS, Christians, alongside other religious minorities, have faced threats and persecutions. Sources estimate that the current Christian population in Iraq consists of between 300,000 to 200,000 thousand people: an estimated 5% of the Iraqi population. This is a huge decline compared to the 1.5 million Christians who were living in Iraq according to a government survey done in 1987. Many of them have emigrated to other countries. So how is it possible that Christmas celebrations are so popular in Iraqi cities?

For the younger generations, it can be a political statement. The Christmas tree (shajarat ˁeid almiilaad, شجرة عيد الميلاد) is seen as a symbol for a world many Arabs don’t have access to and only see on TV and social media, so they try to incorporate it into their life by decorating their homes with Christmas motifs. In this case, Christmas is not seen as a religious festival, but is more of a secular, international cultural phenomenon. Others celebrate it to show solidarity with their Christian co-nationals and appreciation for the diversity that different religions bring to Iraqi society. Finally, some Muslims honor Christmas as the day the Prophet Isa (the Muslim Arabic name of Jesus) was born. And of course, the message of joy and new beginnings usually associated with Christmas and the New Year appeals to many people regardless of their religion. The reasons behind the nationwide appeal of the Christmas holiday are explored in more depth by Deutsche Welle.

The most common representation of Christmas in Iraq is the decorated Christmas tree, which can be seen in shopping malls, hotels and restaurants or in the main streets of big cities. The Christmas tree is more commonly known as the “New Year’s tree” there, and so it is not strictly associated with Christianity. Santa Claus (known in Arabic as بابا نوئل, Baba No’el) is also associated with the New Year (al-sina al-jadiid, السنة الجديدة) because he brings gifts like new clothes. Actual religious symbols such as the cross or Nativity representations are not seen as often in the streets, except in areas where a lot of Christians live.

On Christmas Day, friends and family visit each other and exchange wishes. The traditional meal on this occasion is harissa (هريسة), a soup with a thick consistency made of wheat and chicken meat. At the end of the meal, date-stuffed biscuits called kleicha (كليجة) are eaten. In front of the church, another bonfire is lit and the bishops say a mass while carrying a figure of the baby Jesus. He blesses one person with a touch. That person touches the next person, and so the touch passes around until all have felt the so-called “touch of peace.”

Lebanon (لبنان)

With around 30% percent of the population being Christian, Christmas is big in Lebanon. The 18 different Christian communities present in the country also bring a lot of diversity to their Christmas celebrations. A lot of these communities celebrate Christmas on December 25, but the Armenian community celebrates on January 6 instead.

People who are not Christian are also eager to celebrate, both to show appreciation and interest in their neighbors’ culture and also because many see Christmas as a joyful holiday where people can gather and spend time together. “When I lived in Lebanon, several Muslims told me that Christmas was their favorite holiday,” recalls NaTakallam staff member Mikaela Bell. “When I asked why, they said that most other holidays in Lebanon were celebrated only by one religious group, but that Christmas was for everyone.”

People also mark this day by planting wheat seeds in small containers. The seeds will sprout just in time for Christmas ready to be placed under the Christmas tree or beside nativity scenes. The wheat has a double meaning: it connects to the story of Saint Barbara, who escaped from her father, a pagan king, by running through a field of wheat which grew taller to cover her, and it also represents rebirth, directly referring to the birth of Christ.

Another really common decoration is the Christmas tree, which is seen both in the streets of the cities and also in private homes, even in Muslim families. The poinsettia flower (zaharat al-bonseita, زهرة البونسيتة) was originally imported from the West (it’s native to Mexico) but quickly became really popular in Lebanon as well and is sold in pots during the winter time. In Christian homes families also prepare and decorate a nativity scene. On Christmas Eve churches hold a midnight mass. Afterwards families gather together to eat. Gifts are given to children by their family members, although Baba Noel is also an appreciated Christmas icon.

Common foods that are eaten during this period are the French buche de Noel and the Lebanese meghli (مغلي) a rice pudding with spices and nuts, which is traditionally made to celebrate newborns in the family and during Christmas to celebrate Jesus’s birth. Want to try some? Franceline suggests this recipe for meghli, in English, from the Simply Lebanese blog.

Palestine (فلسطين)

Christmas is not an official holiday in the cradle of Christianity, but it is still widely celebrated by local Christian communities, Muslims, and foreign visitors alike, especially in Bethlehem (بيت لحم), where people come to visit the various places of worship dedicated to the different Christian communities. The oldest and biggest church in Palestine is the Orthodox church, which celebrates Christmas on January 7. Still, December 25 is the most popular day for celebrations. Nativity scenes (meghaarat al-miilaad, مغارة الميلاد, which literally means a “Christmas cave”) and Christmas trees are also common symbols for this celebration, but some believers recall the tradition of decorating cypress tree branches or hanging blessed olive tree branches in their homes.

Traditionally, Palestinian Christian families used to gather, eat homemade sweets alongside a cup of coffee and visit their friends and family. Another commonly eaten food during Christmas is maftoul (مفتول), a Palestinian couscous cooked in broth and eaten with meat, chickpeas and vegetables. Some families view Christmas as a celebration for children, and use this occasion to gift them clothes and toys.

In general, a lot of Palestinians today celebrate Christmas in a more humble and “private” way. Due to emigration and ongoing conflicts, the Christian population in the land of Jesus’s birth is declining. Most sources agree that there are around 50,000 Christians in the West Bank, Gaza and East Jerusalem. Around 2% of the West Bank’s population and less than 1% of Gaza’s population is Christian. They share common struggles with other non-Jewish communities, such as religious discrimination, attacks on holy sites and restrictions on religious practices. In 2023, the Church of Saint Porphyrius was attacked in an Israeli strike claiming to target a Hamas command center, killing at least 18 people, Muslims and Christians, who were sheltering in the building.

If you’d like to learn Palestinian, Lebanese, or Iraqi Arabic — or several other dialects including MSA — while directly supporting displaced people, NaTakallam’s Language Partners are waiting! Sign up for a free trial and discover the joys of language learning with a private tutor, on your own schedule. Choose from 1.) language sessions in your choice of dialect, available for all levels, 2.) our unique Integrated Arabic Curriculum, suitable for committed learners, or 3.) our short Arabic for Professionals courses, perfect for advanced students. All Language Partners come from displaced backgrounds or struggling host communities. Yalla!

Want to learn a few phrases while you’re waiting for your next class? How about some Arabic terms of endearment, a few ways to say goodbye, or the meaning of “inshallah.” Or read about the meaning of the Palestinian keffiyeh and its traditional embroidery.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Alice Zanini is a copywriting intern at NaTakallam. She is currently pursuing her bachelor’s degree in linguistics and Middle Eastern studies. Her research focus is on sociopolitical and sociolinguistic issues in modern Turkey and the Persian-speaking world.

ABOUT THE EDITOR: Mikaela Bell is a freelance editor and content writer with a background in anthropology and linguistics. An American based in France, she is also fond of reading, cooking, studying languages, fibercrafts and Irish stepdance.

With the ongoing war on Gaza, many people are eager to show their support for Palestine. One popular way to do so is by wearing the keffiyeh or kufiyyah (كوفية), a cotton or wool fishnet-patterned scarf. It can have different color variations but is usually a white background with black or red embroidered details. But what is the meaning of the keffiyeh? Its exact origins are unknown, but many Arab countries, such as Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Saudi Arabia, have their own preferred way to wear it. In the Palestinian context, however, it’s not just a fashion item — it’s an iconic symbol of Palestinian culture and identity.

In the 1960s the Palestinian فِدائيّين (feda’iyiin; guerrilla fighters) resumed using the keffiyeh as an emblem of national struggle and unity, while the Palestinian politician Yasser Arafat popularized it to a broader, global audience. Its symbolism became even more fundamental when Israeli authorities banned the Palestinian flag in 1967, and throughout the ’60s and ’70s left wing students and activists from all over the world started wearing it as a symbol of sympathy towards anti-imperialist and anti-war causes.

It was at this point that it became a fashionable garment. Mass manufacturers started producing and selling it to broader audiences, who were often unaware of its meaning and wore it for aesthetic purposes (which has led to accusations of cultural appropriation). For Palestinians, however, the cultural significance of the keffiyeh remains strong despite its commercialization.

The keffiyeh’s patterns are a classic example of Palestinian embroidery. The Arabic word for embroidery of any kind is تطريز (taTriiz), but in English the word “tatreez” has become synonymous with the unique style of embroidery indigenous to Palestine, traditionally done by women.

Some patterns and colors were originally only used in certain areas of Palestine (palm trees from Ramallah, or orange blossoms from Beit Dajan), whereas other designs were stitched everywhere in the country. After the 1920s, however, transportation improved and differences between regions started to decline. 

To learn more about Palestinian culture, consider learning Arabic with one of our Palestinian language partners! Here at NaTakallam, every language session contributes to the livelihoods of our skilled tutors from refugee/displaced backgrounds and their host communities. Book a session today, or start with a few key phrases: learn the meaning of inshallah, some common terms of endearment, or how to wish someone happy holidays.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Alice Zanini is a copywriting intern at NaTakallam. She is currently pursuing her bachelor’s degree in linguistics and Middle Eastern studies. Her research focus is on sociopolitical and sociolinguistic issues in modern Turkey and the Persian-speaking world.

ABOUT THE EDITOR: Mikaela Bell is a freelance editor and content writer with a background in anthropology and linguistics. An American based in France, she is also fond of reading, cooking, studying languages, fibercrafts and Irish stepdance.

Have you ever heard the word inshallah or inshalla (انشاالله)? Maybe you’ve even wondered what it meant? In this article, we’ll cover all the definitions – both literal and contextual – so you can use the word inshalla like a native Arabic speaker! 

First and foremost, the literal definition of Inshalla (انشاالله) is “If God wills [It].” This is a commonplace shortened, casual, and slightly less religious variation of the word inshaAllah (إِن شَاء اَللّٰه), which is pronounced with one more syllable (“In-sha-Al-lah”) and used in more religious contexts. 

The word is often assumed to only be spoken by Muslims, but this is a common misconception! Inshalla is actually used by Arab-speaking and Arab-influenced people of all faiths and beliefs from every corner of the world. For example, you can find this word spoken by Coptic Christian Egyptians, multicultural Kurds, secular Turks, Muslim Indonesians, Zoroastrian Persians, and many other communities!

Each community has added its specific touch to the pronunciation; it is common to hear Kurds and Iranians use the term less religiously by pronouncing it as ishalla (ایشالا) without the n and, again, dropping the stress of the last syllable. As you can see, this word is actually used by non-Muslim and secular people across the world!

Because so many people from different backgrounds, beliefs and origins use this word, there are a lot of different transliterations for it! Whether it be enshalla, enchalla, inchallah, nchallah, you will most likely encounter انشاالله in a myriad of different forms!

The word has even found its way into Spanish – “Ojalá.” This borrowing also means “God willing” or “hopefully” and entered the Indo-European language during the period of Muslim rule of the Iberian Peninsula, known as Al-Andalus.

Now that we have established the structure of the word and who uses it, what does it actually mean? Alas, there is no single answer! Inshalla is employed in a variety of circumstances to convey affirmation, hope, prayer, exceptions, and even polite disagreement. Confused? Have no fear! We’ll cover all the basics and –  inshalla – you will feel more confident by the end of the article.

1. “Yes, I hope so, too”

In the most basic sense, inshalla is a form of genuine agreement with something that was expressed, especially about a future event.

Eg. A: I hope we pass our exam day! B: Inshalla!

2. “Yes, and I’m praying for it too..”

The second basic use emphasizes that although you agree, it’s contingent upon divine will. In some devout communities, people are advised that since only God knows what will happen in the future, they should stay away from making definite statements about the future. Therefore, inshalla replaces “Yes!” You’re saying you wish the event happens, but as it’s not (entirely) in your hands, you can only speculate and pray.

Eg. A: I hope the weather is good tomorrow, I would love to have a picnic on the beach. B: Inshalla!

3. “Yes, okay (respectfully)!”

Inshalla can also simply be a respectful way to say “yes” and acknowledge you hear and understand what the other person said and you’ll do what they asked. This is especially common between older and younger family members!

Eg. A: You really need to clean your room today. B: I’ll get to it as soon as I can, inshalla.

4. “No… (but we’ll see if God wills it)”

Modern uses of inshalla can also be sarcastic. You can use the word to mean that you have no interest in making something happen, but “Yeah, sure, we’ll see if God or fate makes it happen.” This use is a well-known pet-peeve for many who grew up in Arabic-speaking homes!

Eg. A: Mom, can I please go to the beach tomorrow with my friends? B: Inshalla.

5. “We’ll see… but it’s probably not gonna happen…”

Inshalla can also be a form of disagreement or procrastination, an outright “Nope, never gonna happen.” How do you know this is the case? It’s all about understanding the dynamic between you and the person you’re speaking with and feeling the context. You’ll get better with practice! 

Alternatively, you’re signaling you hear what the person is saying, but you’re also probably not going to do what they asked out of laziness, limited capacity, or other internal conditions that limit your motivation.

Eg. A: Mom! Can we go get ice cream today? B: Yeah, inshalla, we’ll see…

6. “It’s going to take a while and I don’t have much information.”

This last use is related to the former, but expanded slightly in scope. Basically, the limiting condition is not only an internal state but also external circumstances. This vague answer can be frustrating to hear, but hopefully a better understanding of the cultural nuances and language will help you figure out a positive path forward.  

Eg. A: When will the documents be ready? B: In a week inshalla.

A: Okay, it’s been a week, are they ready? B: No, in a few days inshalla.

A: Fine, It’s been several days. What about now? B: Inshalla tomorrow!

So there you have it — the affirmative, the sarcastic, the hopeful, and the negative. Like many words in Arabic, inshalla, is vivid and dynamic. An understanding of cultural nuances and context will make a world of difference when you’re trying to navigate what the speaker really means.

With NaTakallam, native-speaking language partners from displaced backgrounds will guide you through the ins and outs of the Arabic language and culture and their experiences in the Arab world. Don’t stop here, keep learning with us in one of our 6 Arabic dialects here! We offer Levantine Syrian, Levantine Lebanese, Levantine Palestinian, Yemeni, Egyptian, Iraqi, and also Modern Standard Arabic! 

Ramadan is a month of fasting, prayer and self-reflection, observed by millions around the world. It is a time for practicing self-discipline, empathy and compassion. 

Those who observe it, fast from dawn to dusk. These fasts are broken by a meal after sunset called iftar (إفطار) or ftoor (فطور) and reinitiated by dawn with a meal called suhur (Arabic:سحور) or sahari/sehri (Persian/Urdu: سحری). The iftar table particularly is a feast for both the eyes and the taste buds, enjoyed by Muslims and their guests from all walks of life. 

Here are 7 traditional delicacies from the Middle East that you can spot on iftar/suhur tables around the world.

 

1. Ma’amoul (معمول)

Ma’amoul is a filled semolina cookie popular in the Middle East particularly in Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Palestine. It is often filled with dates, figs and nuts such as pistachios, almonds and walnuts. It is also prepared in Egypt and Turkey where it is called kahk and kombe, respectively. The word ma’amoul is derived from the Arabic root ‘amila (عَمِلَ) meaning “to do”.

2. Basbousa (بسبوسة)

Basbousa is a semolina cake, soaked in syrup, originally from Egypt. Today, it (or a version of it) is found throughout the Middle East (in Levant: harissa “هريسة”), the Caucasus (Armenian: shamali “Շամալի”), and in countries like Greece (ravani “ραβανί”), Turkey (“revani”), Bulgaria (revane “реване”) and Ethiopia (basbousa “ባስቦሳ”).

3. Qatayef (قطايف) (also pronounced as ‘atayef)

Qatayef is a sweet dumpling made from yeasted batter and filled with cheese and nuts, enjoyed throughout the Levant and Gulf region. A recipe for it is found in the earliest known Arabic cookbook – the 10th century, Kitab al Tabikh (كتاب الطبيخ, “The Book of Dishes”) by Ibn Sayyar al Warraq. The word qatayef is derived from the Arabic root qtf (قطف) meaning to pick or pluck.

4. Om Ali (أم علي)

Literally translating to ‘mother of Ali’, this is a traditional Egyptian dessert. Some call it the national dessert of Egypt. Legend has it that it was first prepared in the 13th century at the behest of Om Ali, the first wife of Mamluk Sultan Izz al Din Aybak. It is a speciality at most Egyptian iftar feasts. 

A variant of this dish is found in the Jordanian and Iraqi delicacy called “khumaiaa”.

5. Luqaimat (لقيمات) or Zalabiya (زلابية)

Luqaimat literally translates to “morsel” or “mouthful” and refers to deep fried dough balls, soaked in syrup or honey. This delicacy, sometimes also known as zalabiya (زلابية), is mentioned in several medieval sources such as Ibn Batuta’s travelogue, the famous ‘Thousand One and Nights’ (in the story of the porter and the three ladies of Baghdad), and in the 13th-century writer, al-Baghdadi’s cookbook Kitab al Tabikh (كتاب الطبيخ, “The Book of Dishes”) – where it is called luqmat al-qādi (لقمة القاضي), “the judge’s morsel”.

Variations of this delicacy are found in Iran (bamiyeh, “بامیه”), Cyprus (loukoumádes “λουκουμάδες” or lokmádes “λοκμάδες”), Greece (zvingoi  “σβίγγοι” or tsirichta “τσιριχτά”), and in Turkey (Saray lokması).

6. Zoolbia (زولبیا)

It is a sweet and crunchy Iranian fritter prepared with fermented batter, saffron, sugar and syrup. At iftar tables, they are often found alongside bamiyeh (بامیه), the small donut-shaped bites. The Iranian zoolbia is closely related to the Arab zalabiya (زلابية), another delicacy prepared at Ramadan using fermented batter, sugar and syrup. Recipes for the latter are recorded in both al Warraq’s and al Baghdadi’s cookbooks from the 10th and 13th centuries respectively. 

Varieties of this delicacy are also found in South Asia (jalebi), North Africa (zlabia) and the Caucasus (zulbiya or zilviya).

 

7. Goosh-e fil (گُوش فيل)

Literally meaning “elephant’s ears”, goosh-e fil is a deep fried pastry prepared in Iran and Afghanistan. They often come topped with powdered sugar and crushed pistachios and are in many ways similar to the Italian dessert named crostoli or chiacchiere. They are particularly enjoyed around Nowruz (Persian new year) and Ramadan.

Learn more about these delicacies and their cultural histories with NaTakallam! Book a session with one of our Arabic, Persian or Kurdish language partners today to delve deeper into the world of languages and everything sweet! 

To all learners, language partners, and friends observing this month, Ramadan Kareem (رمضان كريم, “[have a] blessed Ramadan”), remezan pîroz be!

 

^{CREDITS
– Copywriting: Maria Thomas is a copywriter with NaTakallam. She is currently pursuing her doctoral studies in art history. In her spare time, she enjoys reading, powerlifting and going on hikes.
– Copyediting: Emmy Plaschy is a volunteer content writer and editor at NaTakallam. She currently works in communications in Switzerland. In her spare time, she enjoys polishing her Arabic skills, writing and gazing at the stars.}